Lithium Recovery from Brines: A Comprehensive Review of Advanced Separation Technologies
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Lithium Recovery from Brines: A Comprehensive Review of Advanced Separation Technologies
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  • Hemant Mittal*
    Hemant Mittal
    DEWA R&D Center, Dubai Electricity & Water Authority (DEWA), P.O. Box 564, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
    *E-mail: [email protected] (Hemant Mittal).
    More by Hemant Mittal
  • Syed Nasir Shah*
    Syed Nasir Shah
    DEWA R&D Center, Dubai Electricity & Water Authority (DEWA), P.O. Box 564, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
    *Email: [email protected], [email protected] (Syed Nasir Shah).
    More by Syed Nasir Shah
    Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-2666-9741
  • Maryam Alsuwaidi
    Maryam Alsuwaidi
    DEWA R&D Center, Dubai Electricity & Water Authority (DEWA), P.O. Box 564, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
    More by Maryam Alsuwaidi
  • Akram Alfantazi
    Akram Alfantazi
    Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
    Emirates Nuclear Technology Center (ENTC), Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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    Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-4039-5110
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Precision Chemistry

Cite this: Precis. Chem. 2026, XXXX, XXX, XXX-XXX
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https://doi.org/10.1021/prechem.5c00264
Published April 6, 2026

© 2026 The Authors. Co-published by University of Science and Technology of China and American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under

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Abstract

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The increasing lithium (Li) demand, attributable to its essential function in energy storage applications, has necessitated the advancement in Li extraction and recovery methods. Brine-based Li extraction presents a cost-effective and scalable solution; however, challenges such as high magnesium-to-Li (Mg/Li) ratios and environmental concerns necessitate innovative approaches. This review comprehensively examines various Li recovery techniques from brine, focusing on precipitation, adsorption and ion exchange, membrane separation, electrochemical separation, solvent extraction, and hybrid technologies. Precipitation methods, including carbonate and aluminate precipitation, offer straightforward processing but face selectivity challenges in high Mg/Li ratio brines. Adsorption and ion exchange techniques, particularly Li-ion sieves and layered double hydroxides, have demonstrated high selectivity and efficiency. Electrochemical methods present promising low-energy alternatives for Li separation. Furthermore, solvent extraction and advanced membrane-based techniques provide additional pathways for Li recovery, enhancing the yield and purity. This Perspective highlights recent advancements, process optimizations, and emerging strategies aimed at improving Li recovery while reducing environmental impact. Comparative assessment of these techniques is provided, considering factors such as the Mg/Li ratio, operational feasibility, energy consumption, and scalability. Special emphasis is placed on emerging strategies such as engineered sorbents, electrochemical separation, and advanced membrane filtration, which offer sustainable alternatives to traditional methods. Additionally, this review bridges the gap between laboratory-scale research and industrial applications, outlining key challenges and potential solutions for Li extraction. This Review provides a roadmap for developing more efficient, sustainable, and scalable Li extraction processes. The insights presented here aid researchers, industry professionals, and policymakers in advancing Li recovery technologies to meet growing global demand.

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1. Introduction

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The increasing global investments in clean energy technologies are contributing to a heightened demand for critical minerals. (1−3) Therefore, it is evident that the energy sector is poised to employ a significant impact on mineral markets in the forthcoming years. Moreover, in the coming future, a considerable amount of total energy produced will come from renewable energy technologies. The International Energy Agency predicted that lithium (Li) demand will surge significantly, estimating a 90% growth by the year 2040. (4) However, the rapid and high demand for Li, coupled with its low global production rate, has raised concern about the advancement of emerging technologies. Thus, it is of utmost importance to develop highly efficient extraction methods that have low energy consumption and are environmentally sustainable, particularly from sources such as brine, mineral ores, and seawater. (5) Li, ranked as the 25th most common element in Earth’s crust, plays a vital role in clean energy technologies. (6−10) Li is an essential element in sustainable energy initiatives and is utilized across multiple industries, such as electronics, alloys, glass, ceramics, greases, and metallurgy. (10,11) It also supports the advancement in renewable energy technologies, particularly in the production of Li-ion batteries. (12) In addition, Li is also used in other applications like air conditioning, lubricating greases, pharmaceutics, and healthcare. (13−17)
Recent developments in Li-ion batteries have significantly raised Li demand, with 87% of worldwide Li production being allocated to batteries. Li-ion batteries are widely utilized in devices such as laptops, smartphones, electric vehicles, and large-scale battery storage. (18−20) The demand for Li-ion batteries has increased significantly, driven by the commercialization of EVs and portable electronic devices. To comprehend the practical demand for Li, it is noteworthy that each hybrid-electric or fully electric vehicle (EVs) necessitates a Li requirement of approximately 10 kg. (8,21) By 2030, the electric vehicle demand is predicted to reach 142 million units, while the need for Li carbonate is expected to increase to 3–4 million metric tons (Mt). Projections suggest that demand could grow 40 times by 2050, resulting in a shift toward more environmentally friendly extraction methods. (19) The growing utilization of Li batteries in electric vehicles, laptops, camcorders, smartphones, and various other electronic devices has necessitated an urgent demand for Li resources. Consequently, considering the global trend toward electrification within the energy sector, it assumes a pivotal role as a fundamental component in the advancement of battery technology. Therefore, it is crucial to explore innovative recycling and recovery methods for easily obtainable Li waste materials that are both cost-effective and highly efficient. (21)
There are two primary sources of Li: (a) minerals and (b) water resources,. (5) In 2024, the estimated Li resources were more than 105 million tons, primarily found in natural water resources, as well as solid phase sources. (19) According to reports from United States Geological Survey (USGS), Li is predominantly obtained from mineral ores and brines found in salt lakes, with the latter contributing approximately 60% of the total Li supply. (22) Often referred to as “White Gold” Li symbolizes its growing importance in the global energy and geopolitical landscape. (12) Li reserves in the land could reach depletion by 2080, considering the existing consumption rate, highlighting the need to focus on low-grade Li resources to ensure a stable future supply. (17) According to the Scopus database, only 824 publications addressing Li extraction from brine were recorded between 1963 and 2000. As shown in Figure 1, the number of related articles grew significantly from January 2001 to December 2023, with a particularly sharp rise observed between 2019 and 2023. (23)

Figure 1

Figure 1. Publication counts retrieved from the Scopus database using the search query: TITLE-ABS-KEY (lithium AND extraction) AND PUBYEAR > 1999 AND PUBYEAR < 2026.

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Li recovery from brine resources is becoming a more competitive alternative to traditional ore-based mining. (23) In comparison to Li extraction from ores, the process of extracting Li from brines is characterized by reduced production costs and lower operational complexities. Also, it generally exerts a lower environmental impact, with the primary concern being a modest water footprint. (24−27) In addition, there is lower energy consumption, less impact on the soil surface, and a lower carbon footprint. Furthermore, it offers greater supply potential, is relatively more cost-effective, and is much easier to explore. (28) Thus, a critical strategy for ensuring the sustainable supply of Li involves the development of effective methodologies for Li extraction from brine resources. (29,30) Nevertheless, Li present in brines is typically associated with elevated concentrations of other cations, including Mg2+, Na+, K+, and Ca2+. The presence of certain cations, particularly Mg2+, exhibits properties analogous to those of Li-ions, thereby complicating the extraction of Li-ions from brines. (29,30) Historically, Li can be extracted economically through precipitation involving sodium carbonate when the Mg/Li ratio is less than 6. (31) The expense associated with the precipitation process significantly increases when the Mg/Li ratio is elevated. Regrettably, a significant proportion of brine sources, particularly those located in China, exhibit elevated Mg/Li ratios. In instances in which brines exhibit elevated Mg/Li ratios, alternative Li extraction technologies have been proposed. These methods encompass adsorption, nanofiltration (NF), electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, and solvent extraction. (32−46) Moreover, emerging technologies such as electrochemical, biotechnology, and nanotechnology have also shown their potential in the effective recovery of Li from brines. (17)
The precipitation method is simple and commercially favorable for Li recovery. However, due to the extensive use of chemicals and low efficiency in the case of high Mg/Li ratios, further research is required to mitigate these shortcomings. (5,12) Solvent extraction is another viable method, which is particularly applicable to high Li content brines. While it operates efficiently and is not affected by climatic constraints, this method is also coupled with increased operational costs and environmental risk. (12) Several systems of solvent extraction have been developed, such as neutral extraction, synergistic solvent extraction, ionic liquid extraction, and crown ether-based systems. Among these systems, ionic liquids are considered advantageous because they have low volatility, are nonflammable, have adjustable viscosity, and increase Li selectivity, particularly with a high Mg/Li ratio. (23) Li-selective membranes are useful for direct Li extraction, offering environmental benefits and the ability to scale up. However, technological advancements are required to improve their selectivity and chemical stability in real-world applications. (12) Electrochemical methods demonstrate a high potential to extract Li from natural brine. It has several advantages, including considerable selectivity, low energy demand, and a reduced environmental impact. However, some improvements are needed to enhance the field applicability of Li, including increasing the storage capacity, improving cyclic stability, and enhancing the preference for ions. (23) Adsorption methods have emerged as a promising alternative for recovering Li from brine. This method is economical and suitable for large-scale implementation. The Li-ion sieves provide high selectivity and separation efficiency, even when concentration of Li is low and the Mg/Li ratio is high. (47,48) Recent developments, including the incorporation of ion-exchange and Li brine concentration techniques, demonstrate promise in improving direct Li extraction performance through brine concentration and reduction of impurities without the need for direct Li separation. Although the adsorption method is promising, it has limitations, such as the minimal adsorption capacity and dissolution of the material during elution. (23)
This review provides a comprehensive analysis of various Li extraction technologies from brine, including electrochemical methods, solvent extraction, precipitation, adsorption, and membrane-based separation. Each method is critically examined with respect to its operational principles, advantages, limitations, and suitability across a range of brine compositions, especially those with high Mg/Li ratios. Special attention is given to recent advancements in material development and process optimization aimed at improving the selectivity, recovery efficiency, and environmental performance. By integrating insights from both laboratory research and industrial practice, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, and policymakers working toward the development of efficient and sustainable Li recovery systems.

2. Different Methods of Li-Ion Recovery

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Li extraction from brine is a critical process for obtaining this valuable metal, which is primarily used in EVs. Several methods have been employed to extract Li from brine, each with distinct advantages and challenges. In the traditional evaporation pond method, Li-containing brine is extracted and exposed to open air, allowing water to evaporate over time and concentrating Li salts. More advanced methods include adsorption (49−51) and solvent extractio,n (52−55) which offer faster processing times and higher Li recovery rates while reducing the environmental impact. Additionally, electrochemical methods and membrane-based technologies are emerging as promising alternatives, aiming to increase efficiency in Li extraction. (56−65) Different methods or techniques used for extracting Li ions from brine are listed in Figure 2.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Different methods or techniques for Li extraction from brine.

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2.1. Precipitation

Precipitation-based methods represent one of the earliest and most widely applied approaches for the recovery of lithium from brines. This technique relies on the selective formation of sparingly soluble lithium compounds such as lithium carbonate or lithium phosphate through the addition of appropriate reagents after concentrating the brine. Owing to its operational simplicity and industrial maturity, precipitation has been extensively used in conventional lithium extraction processes, particularly for high-lithium and low-magnesium brines. However, its effectiveness is often limited by low selectivity, high chemical consumption, and coprecipitation of competing ions, which has motivated the development of alternative or hybrid extraction strategies. The process flow diagram of the precipitation method for the recovery of lithium along with its advantages and disadvantages in shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Schematic illustration of lithium recovery via chemical precipitation from high-Li brines, highlighting the process steps, recovered lithium products, and key advantages and limitations of the method.

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The initial successful investigations by many researchers reported precipitation of Li as lithium aluminate using aluminum chloride. (66−68) The precipitation of Li as Li2CO3 has been documented through the application of a multistep precipitation process. (68) The main challenge associated with Li precipitation is coprecipitation of Mg. Consequently, different precipitation methods have been suggested for specific Mg/Li ratios in brine. For instance, carbonate precipitation is frequently observed and is generally observed in brines having Mg/Li ratios below 6,. (67) Initially, Mg is precipitated by adding CaO, and subsequently Li is precipitated as Li2CO3 by adding Na2CO3. (69,70) In certain brine reserves characterized by the presence of crude Li2CO3 with low Mg/Li ratios, the process of carbonization precipitation is employed. This technique involves the introduction of CO2 into the brine, resulting in Li precipitation in the form of Li2CO3. (70) A synergistic approach integrating carbonate and carbonization precipitation methods was utilized to achieve high-purity Li2CO3. (71)
In brines having an elevated Mg/Li ratio, Mg and aluminate precipitation methods are utilized to extract Li. In the process of aluminate precipitation, AlCl3 is introduced in conjunction with NaOH to produce aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3). This Al(OH)3 subsequently facilitates the selective precipitation of Li as LiAlO2. (9) This method, characterized by its enhanced environmental sustainability, has demonstrated a remarkable efficacy in the recovery of Li with elevated Mg/Li ratios. (72) Recently, significant advancements have been made in the development of innovative materials such as Al-Ca alloys (73) and Al-NaCl mixtures (74) for improving Li extraction efficiency from brines with elevated Mg/Li ratios. More than 90% Li was recovered using engineered double hydroxides, including Li aluminum layered double hydroxide chloride. (75−77)
Magnesium precipitation represents an alternative methodology for addressing elevated Mg/Li ratios, as it facilitates the reduction of this ratio, thereby enhancing the efficiency of Li recovery. The (NH4)2C2O4 and Na2CO3 were determined to be effective agents for the precipitation of 98% of magnesium under optimal reaction conditions. (77) Oxalic acid has been demonstrated to effectively precipitate over 95% of magnesium as magnesium oxalate in brine systems, even at a Mg/Li ratio of up to 21. (78) Research has demonstrated that integrated and multistep methodologies are effective in precipitating and separating up to 99% of magnesium from brine solutions characterized by a high Mg/Li ratio. In a study, a hydrometallurgical process was developed for recovering Li from brine having saturated levels of Na, Cl, and sulfate, and low Li content (0.7–0.9 g/L) as compared to Mg (15–18 g/L). (68) A two-stage precipitation was utilized, employing lime to initially remove magnesium and sulfate as Mg(OH)2 and gypsum while also adsorbing boron. Residual magnesium and calcium were later removed using sodium oxalate, and the resulting oxalate could be roasted into dolime for reuse. Subsequent evaporation concentrated the Li to 20 g/L, and final Li2CO3 precipitation at 80–90 °C yielded a high-purity (99.55%) product. This comprehensive method efficiently produced Li carbonate and recovered magnesium and boron as valuable byproducts. In another study, a novel integrated process for the efficient separation and recovery of magnesium and Li from high Mg/Li ratio brines, particularly those from salt lakes like the Taijinaier Salt Lake in China, was studied. (79) The method involved producing magnesium–aluminum–carbonate layered double hydroxides (MgAlCO3-LDHs) to remove magnesium, followed by steps to eliminate impurities such as boron, carbonate, and sulfate, ultimately precipitating high-purity Li carbonate. Key parameters affecting the process were optimized, resulting in a significant decrease in magnesium concentration and a Li yield exceeding 95%. The method effectively separated magnesium and Li while achieving a Li carbonate product purity of 99.7% and showing potential for economic feasibility.
In a study, Lai et al. (80) proposed a novel crystallization-precipitation technique (as shown in Figure 4(a)) for the extraction of Li from salt lake brine characterized by a high Mg/Li ratio greater than 40. A closed-loop pathway for the crystallization of carnallite was established, demonstrating significant efficiency in magnesium removal through the precipitation of MgHPO4(S). This achievement was supported by both thermodynamic analysis and empirical experimentation. In the initial phase, KCl was introduced into the brine solution to facilitate the removal of approximately 50% of the magnesium content through the formation of carnallite. When the quantity of KCl constituted 55.9% of the stoichiometric requirement and subsequent evaporation occurred at a rate of 17.6%, the removal efficiency for total magnesium was measured at 53.1%, accompanied by a Li loss of 5.4%. In the second stage, residual magnesium present in the brine was further eliminated through the formation of MgHPO4 in its solid state. Under optimal conditions, specifically utilizing a stoichiometric amount of Na2HPO4, at 40 °C, 30 min reaction time, and an aging period of 3 h, the study demonstrated a magnesium removal efficiency of 99.2% and a Li recovery rate of 98.5%. In another study, the efficacy of sodium metasilicate nonahydrate as a novel precipitant for the selective separation of Li from magnesium in brine characterized by a high magnesium-to-Li mass ratio was investigated. (81) The research systematically explored the effects of various parameters, including reaction time, agitation rate, precipitant dosage, and aging time, on the precipitation process. The results showed that the Li recovery increased from 83.70% to about 92% within 5 min as colloidal precipitates dispersed, but longer times led to a decreased recovery due to adsorption onto MgSiO3. Magnesium precipitation remained steady at around 99%, unaffected by reaction time. It was also observed that as agitation increased from 100 to 300 rpm, the magnesium precipitation rate improved slightly and stabilized above 98.5%, while Li recovery decreased slightly but then leveled off. Higher agitation reduced the Mg/Li mass ratio and enhanced magnesium removal by breaking up precipitates that initially hindered the Mg2+ interactions. Therefore, the study concluded that sodium metasilicate nonahydrate can be used effectively as a new precipitator to separate Li from magnesium in high Mg/Li ratio brine, with optimal agitation and aging enhancing magnesium removal and maintaining high Li recovery. The effects of different parameters on the Li recovery are shown in Figure 4(b–e) A summary of Li recovery from various brine sources using different reagents and precipitation techniques is provided under Table 1.

Figure 4

Figure 4. (a) Flowsheet for the crystallization-precipitation method adapted with permission from ref (80). Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (b, c) Effects of the reaction time on (b) percentage recovery and (c) precipitation rates; (d, e) effects of stirring rate on (d) percentage recovery and (e) precipitation rates of Li and Mg-ion recovery adapted with permission from ref (81). Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

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Table 1. Summary of Li Recovery from Various Brine Sources Using Different Reagents and Precipitation Techniques
reagents/precipitantbrine sourceLi recovery rate (%)temperature (°C)yearreference
Sodium carbonite, calcium hydroxideUyuni Salar brineMore than 90%90 °C2012 (68)
Na2CO3, EDTA-Li, mineral acidSalt Lake brine from Damxungcuo saline lake99.6%60 °C2014 (71)
Al–Ca alloySalt Lake brine94.6%70 °C2015 (73)
Na3PO4Salt Lake brine91.94%90 °C2018 (79)
KCl and Na2HPO4Salt Lake brine93.2%-2020 (80)
Sodium metasilicate nonahydrateSimulated Salt Lake brine86.73%25 ± 22019 (81)
TBP in methyl isobutyl ketoneSalt Lake brine98.9%23–272016 (82)
Facet engineered Li3PO4Salt Lake brine from Dangxiong Co Salt Lake in China51.62%30 °C2021 or 2022 (83)
Na2CO3The brine source used in the study was from the Qaidam Basin.93.3–97.2%60 °C2023 (84)
Na2CO3, Li3PO4α-spodumene from China93.3%65 °C2019 (85)
Trisodium phosphateSea water brine40%40 °C2020 (86)
Trisodium phosphateEnvironmental brine from the Dead Sea40%40 °C2021 (87)
NaOH and CO2Synthetic simulated brine80%80 °C2022 (88)
AlCl3·6H2O and NaOHArtificial Uyuni brine95%-2025 (89)
(NH4)2SO4Simulated Salt-Lake brine74.8%25 °C2024 (90)

2.2. Electrochemical Extraction

Electrochemical methods have emerged as promising and energy-efficient approaches for lithium extraction from brines, offering high selectivity and significantly reduced chemical consumption compared to conventional evaporation or precipitation routes. (91−94) These techniques have a demonstrated strong potential for enhancing lithium recovery efficiency while operating under mild conditions, thereby lowering the energy demand and environmental impact. In addition, electrochemical systems enable improved control over the ion selectivity and process kinetics, making them attractive for sustainable lithium production. Figure 5 provides an overview of the major electrochemical approaches employed for lithium recovery, including ion-selective insertion–extraction electrodes, electrodialysis- and membrane-based systems, and hybrid redox or capacitive deionization configurations. The figure highlights the key operational principles, advantages, and performance benefits of these methods, which are discussed in detail in subsequent sections. Together, these electrochemical strategies represent a versatile and scalable pathway for the next-generation extraction of lithium from complex brine resources.

Figure 5

Figure 5. Overview of lithium recovery pathways from brines: (a) conventional evaporation–precipitation processes characterized by high energy and chemical consumption; (b) electrochemical lithium extraction methods offering improved energy efficiency and selectivity; (c) lithium insertion (charging) into lithium-selective electrodes under an applied potential; (d) lithium extraction (discharging) through controlled release of Li+ ions into a recovery solution; and (e) overall advantages of insertion–extraction systems operating under mild conditions with high lithium selectivity and reduced energy and chemical requirements.

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2.2.1. Electrochemical Deintercalation/Intercalation Method (EDIM)

Electrochemical deintercalation/intercalation methods (EDIM) represent a promising methodology for Li extraction or recovery, utilizing electrochemical principles to facilitate the selective capture of Li ions. This technique has attracted considerable attention because of efficiency, selectivity, and environmental advantages when compared with traditional methods. This approach employs an electrochemical cell that incorporates Li-selective materials, including but not limited to Li manganese oxide (LiMn2O4), Li iron phosphate (LiFePO4), or various layered materials, which function as electrodes. Upon the application of an electrochemical potential, Li-ions undergo intercalation into the electrode material, a process that facilitates their subsequent deintercalation for collection, or the Li is then extracted from the electrode in a controlled manner using another voltage step. Intercalation of Li-ions is predominantly influenced by electrochemical principles and solid-state ion transport mechanisms. Upon the application of an electric field, Li-ions present migrate toward the negatively charged working electrode. The electrode material, which generally exhibits a layered or tubular morphology, enables the intercalation of Li-ions within its lattice without inducing substantial structural modifications
In aqueous environments, LiMn2O4 demonstrated good stability but exhibited impurity ion cointercalation at the cathode and oxygen evolution at the anode. To address this, Yin et al. (95) refined LiMn2O4 particle size using the sol–gel method, reducing it from 10 μm to 500 nm, which doubled the specific surface area. This improvement minimized oxygen evolution and Mn dissolution while significantly increasing Li recovering efficiency. Figure 6(a–c) illustrates the anode reaction, Li extraction device, cathode reaction, and pH-related potential shifts. In Figure 6(d), the anode potential initially rises but stays within the water stable region, with higher acidity promoting oxygen evolution. Figure 6(e, f) shows cathode potential shifts with pH, indicating its stability and susceptibility under varying conditions.

Figure 6

Figure 6. (a–c) Schematic illustration of reactions occurring at the anode and cathode sides Li extraction device; (d, e) comparison of the anode and cathode electrode potential with pH variations; (f) analysis of Mn dissolution losses at the anode and ion intercalation capacity at the cathode adapted with permission from ref (95). Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (g) Structure of the electrolytic cell adapted with permission from ref (96). Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (h) Schematic diagram of electrodes preparation adapted with permission from ref (97). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (i, j) Mg/Li ratio, Li+ concentration and current density for each cycle adapted with permission from ref (98). Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

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Another study demonstrated effectiveness to capture Li from brine with a high Mg/Li ratio. (96) For low Li concentration brine, the ratio dropped from 147.8 to 0.37; however, for high Li concentration brine, the Mg/Li ratio dropped to 1.7 from 58.8, achieving an 83.3% Li recovery rate. Importantly, the EDIM maintained excellent cycling performance even after 100 cycles and a very low manganese dissolution rate of less than 0.077% per cycle. The structure of the electrolytic cell is shown in Figure 6(g). In another study, the kinetics of the electrode processes associated with LiFePO4/Li1–xFePO4 (where 0 < x < 1) in saline environments was investigated through the application of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. (97) Diffusion of Li ions within electrode was identified as a rate-limiting step, with the optimal diffusion coefficient recorded at 2.23 × 10–11 cm2/s at a coating density of 55 mg/cm2. At elevated temperature, values of Warburg impedance and charge transfer resistance declined but remained relatively stable across varying Li-ion concentrations. The presence of Mg2+ impeded Li+ charge transfer, highlighting the necessity of optimizing the electrode structure and brine composition for improved Li recovery efficiency. Procedure of Li deintercalation/intercalation and electrode preparation is shown in Figure 6(h). In another study, a novel approach was developed to prepare olivine-FePO4 electrodes using sodium persulfate under optimal conditions. (98) Li-ions were selectively intercalated into the LiFePO4 electrode and subsequently deintercalated to recover Li efficiently. By applying a controlled electric potential, the method achieved a high ion selectivity and stability. The LiFePO4 electrodes, upon oxidation, transformed to FePO4, allowing Li-ions to be released back into the solution, a process that was efficiently monitored using the solution’s redox potential. This approach was particularly effective in extracting Li from salt-lake brine, reducing the Mg/Li ratio, and achieving an impressive Li recovery rate of 85.30% (Figure 6(i)). Additionally, the intercalation and deintercalation cycles maintained strong performance, with average current densities of 15.65 and 13.11 A/m2 over two cycles (Figure 6(j)).

2.2.2. Electrodialysis

Electrodialysis is a method of separation to extract Li ions from brine through ionic movements by applying an electric field. This method is particularly useful for its efficacy in isolating Li ions from brines having a high concentration of other cations like Mg and Na. (99) The fundamental components of an electrodialysis cell comprise cation (CEMs) and anion (AEMs)-exchange membranes placed alternatively within the direct current electric field situated amid two electrodes. These membranes serve to partition the electrolyte into distinct compartments, thereby facilitating the ion transport process. When electric charge is applied, charged Li-ions move toward the cathode through CEMs, while negatively charged ions relocate in the opposite direction, toward the anode via AEMs. (99−101) The separation of analogous ions such as Mg-ions possesses significant challenges, but they can be efficiently separated using different membrane systems capable of distinguishing between monovalent and divalent ions. Therefore, this technique represents one of the most effective methods for Li recovery. The schematic of different electrodialysis devices is shown in Figure 7(a–c). (102) The temperature substantially affects the electrodialysis efficiency by influencing ion-transfer within the ion exchange membrane and overall efficacy of ion separation. The CEMs swell in response to elevated operating temperatures and result in the higher migration rate of cations. In a study, the effect of temperature on Li-ions extraction was studied, and it was observed that at elevated temperatures the hydration radius of Li and Mg2+ ions decreased; however, the pore size of membranes slightly increased which facilitated the permeation of certain Mg2+ ions through the membrane, thereby reducing the separation efficacy between Li+ and Mg2+ (Figure 7(d)). (103)

Figure 7

Figure 7. Schematic of (a) traditional electrodialysis, (b) bipolar membrane electrodialysis, and (c) selective electrodialysis adapted with permission from ref (102). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (d) Changes in the behavior of partially dehydrated ions and membrane pore structure at varying temperatures adapted with permission from ref (103). Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

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In a study, Li ions were selectively extracted from Li-containing solution by using a material called Li lanthanum titanate (LLT). (104) To enhance its performance, the LLT surface was treated by immersing it in a concentrated HCl acid solution. The surface modification facilitates the adsorption of Li-ions. The Li-ions were electrochemically extracted under an applied voltage (5 V) and membrane area (16 cm2) in the mixed alkaline solution (0.1 M LiOH, NaOH, KOH). It was further reported that using this membrane, 40 mg of Li could be removed from the solution prepared by immersing black powder from used Li-ion batteries in water. The findings indicated that LA-LLT removed Li-ions faster as compared to LLT (Figure 8(a)) and also extracted a higher amount of Li (40 mg) (Figure 8(b)). Another study reported development of the S-ED system employing high-efficiency MCEMs to process simulated permeate water produced from an NF procedure (105) (Figure 8(c)). The mussel-inspired membrane composed of gallic acid and polyethylenimine (M-GA/PEI) exhibited superior separation performance compared to the commercially available microfiltration ceramic membrane (CSO) during the S-ED. The initial and subsequent stages of the S-ED process demonstrated reduced energy consumption, specifically ranging from 0.029 to 0.039 kWh/mol of Li in the first stage and from 0.011 to 0.014 kWh/mol of Li in the second stage. Zhang et al. (106) reported the development of S-ED applied in batch mode for continuous extraction of Li-ions. Subsequently, the extracted Li-ions were transformed into Li2CO3. Figure 8(d, e) shows an illustration of Li-Mg movement in batch and feed and bleed mode. It was reported that increased voltage enhanced the recovery ratio of Li-ions (RLi). However, it was observed that an excessive application of voltage resulted in a reduction in the separation coefficient between Li and Mg ions. Enhancement in linear flow velocity increased the migration rate (Mr); however, it had minimal impact on both FLi–Mg levels and specific energy consumption (ESEC). The augmentation of the supplementary feed flow resulted in an increase in the FLi–Mg levels. In a recent investigation, a novel, thin, and densely functionalized composite ceramic membrane was developed and utilized in conjunction with electrodialysis to remove Li-ions from saline lake sources. (107) The thin functional layer, approximately 20 μm in thickness, consisting of the NASICON-type superionic conductor material Li1.3Al0.3Ti1.7(PO4)3 was deposited onto an alumina membrane. LATP composite membrane demonstrated a significant reduction in the Mg/Li ratio. The complete scheme of the fabrication of LATP membrane and the Mg/Li separation is shown under Figure 8(f).

Figure 8

Figure 8. (a) Rate of Li removal and (b) results of Li extraction adapted with permission from ref (104). Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (c) Schematic representation of the multistage integrated membrane process, which includes a single-stage NF, followed by a first-stage and second-stage S-ED adapted with permission from ref (105). Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (d, e) Illustration of schematic of Li-Mg migration in (d) batch S-ED; (e) feed and bleed mode adapted with permission from ref (106). Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (f) Complete scheme of the fabrication of LATP membrane and the Mg/Li separation adapted with permission from ref (107). Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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2.2.3. Electrochemical Ion Pumping

This technique involves ion pumping for extracting Li-ions through a cell having specialized membranes or electrodes to transport Li-ions from brine solution to a concentrated chamber by applying an electric potential gradient that guides the selective movement of Li-ions while blocking other competing cations, such as sodium or magnesium. Moreover, electrochemical ion pumping proves to be both energy efficient and ecofriendly by reducing chemical consumption and relying on energy sources for power. Ma et al. (108) developed an electrochemically switched Li-ions permselective membrane (ESLPM) having an electroactive layer of LiMn2O4, flanked by dense, polyamide layers having positive charge on either side of a polyether sulfone substrate. The reversible uptake and release of Li-ions were modulated through the manipulation of the electrochemical potential of the membrane, which was facilitated by the ion-pump effect in conjunction with an electric field. Consequently, the flux of Li-ions through the optimized hierarchical electrochemically switched ion permselective (ESIP) separation system, specifically ESLPM-240, achieved a rate of 0.032 mol/m2 h to selectively separate Li-ions from brines having a Mg/Li ratio of 20. Simultaneously, the implementation of a hierarchical structure led to an enhancement of the separation factor for Li/Mg. Furthermore, theoretical calculations have established that these modified layers exhibit a greater affinity for Li-ion transport in comparison to Mg ions. The diagram of the ESIP stack designed for continuous Li-ions separation, the mechanism illustrating Li-ions separation, diffusion pathway and energy barrier analysis for Li and Mg-ions and mean square displacement of Li and Mg-ions are shown under Figure 9.

Figure 9

Figure 9. (a) Design of ESIP stack for continuous Li-ions separation; (b) the mechanism illustrating Li-ions separation; (c) the diffusion pathway and (d) energy barrier analysis; (e) mean square displacement of Li and Mg-ions, with diffusion coefficient shown in the inset adapted with permission from ref (108). Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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2.2.4. Capacitive Deionization (CDI)

Capacitive deionization (CDI) is an emerging electrochemical technique that facilitates Li-ion recovery by utilizing porous carbon electrodes to selectively extract ions from brine under an applied electric field. (102) In this process, Li-ions migrate toward anode under the application of voltage, where they are adsorbed and temporarily stored. Once the voltage is reversed or the electrodes are discharged, the adsorbed Li ions are released into a separate, more concentrated stream, allowing for Li recovery. CDI is particularly advantageous for its energy efficiency, as it operates at low voltages and consumes minimal energy compared with traditional desalination or chemical extraction methods. Additionally, it offers the flexibility of tuning electrode materials to increase the selectivity for Li ions, making it suitable for extracting Li from solutions with complex ionic compositions. This method holds promise for sustainable Li extraction, especially when it is integrated with renewable energy sources.
LiMn2O4 (LMO) is a cost-effective material for extracting Li-ions, offering high theoretical capacity; however, its practical application is limited by slow ion insertion kinetics and manganese dissolution. To address these challenges, Zhang et al. (109) synthesized electrodes based on LMO having reduced graphene oxide (rGO/LMO) to enhance performance in hybrid capacitive deionization (HCDI) systems. The rGO/LMO electrode exhibited an impressive electrical conductivity and high specific capacitance. In HCDI testing, it also exhibited a high Li-ion extraction capacity and fast adsorption rate (Figure 10(a)). The electrode also demonstrated exceptional selectivity with a 71.32 separation factor in brine having a 20 molar ratio of Mg/Li and significantly high separation factors from Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ in simulated Atacama brine (Figure 10(b)). Additionally, the rGO/LMO electrode maintained 90.73% capacity retention after 50 cycles, indicating excellent cycling stability. In a study, chromium-doped and carbon-coated Li manganese oxide (C-LMO-Cr) electrodes were synthesized through a coprecipitation-calcination method and utilized to enhance cycling stability and Li selectivity in the context of electrochemical Li recovery. (110) The synthesis procedure of Cr-LMO and C-LMO-Cr is shown in Figure 10(c). The C-LMO-Cr electrode demonstrated an exceptionally high retention rate. The presence of carbon buffering on the electrode surface significantly hindered the initial dissolution of manganese while simultaneously facilitating increased charge transfer. Furthermore, the contraction of the lattice in the carbon-buffering LiMnO2-Cr (LMO-Cr) composition promoted the enhanced selectivity for Li ions and facilitated their migration. When utilized in an HCDI system (as shown in Figure 10(d)), the optimized C-LMO-Cr electrode demonstrates a significant Li-ion extraction capacity. The comparison of different electrochemical techniques used for the extraction of lithium ions from brine is provided under Table 2.

Figure 10

Figure 10. (a) The adsorption capacity in single-salt solutions (0.05 mol/L); (b) separation factor and adsorption capacity across different Mg/Li ratios adapted with permission from ref (109). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (c) Synthesis process of electrodes; (d) representation of HCDI device adapted with permission from ref (110). Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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Table 2. Comparison of Electrochemical Li Extraction Methods from Various Brine Sources
electrochemical techniqueelectrode materialbrine typeadsorption capacityLi recovery (%)Mg/Li reductionenergy requirementref
Intercalation/DeintercalationLiFePO4/FePO4 (olivine type)West Taijinar natural brine∼32 mg/g (initial), 28 mg/g after 120 cycles85.3%54.27 to 1.65- (98)
 Spinel LiMn2O4/Li1–xMn2O4Da Qaidam original brine15 mg/g50–75% (single-pass); up to 83.3% after four cycles147.8 to 0.3716 Wh/mol (96)
 LiNi0.05Mn1.95O4Simulated brine25.87 mg/g88.2%60 to 2.313.42 Wh/mol (111)
 LiMn2O4 thin film on Ti foilSimulated brine34.3 mg/g83.4% (after 20 cycles)Li/Mg selectivity ≈ 73.618.6 Wh/mol (112)
 LiMn1.8Cr0.2O4Jieze Caka brine21.85 mg/g98.93% (100 cycles), 86.05% (500 cycles)Improved selectivity vs Mg-ions2.16 Wh/mol (113)
 TiO2-coated FePO4Authentic seawater-Li/(Li+Na) ≈ 50% (10 cycles)Li/Na improved from 5 × 10–5 → 1:1 (Li selectivity 1.8 × 104)Not stated (pulsed C/5) (114)
 Porous carbon-supported LiFePO4Synthetic brine5.13 mg/cm3 ([Li-ions] = 100 mg/L)96%Selective against Mg and N (Mg/Li < 0.5)33.52 Wh/mol (115)
 LiMn2O4/λ-MnO2Baqiancuo Salt-Lake brine (Li = 0.33 g/L)-95.0 (analytical recovery)-- (116)
Capacitive Deionization (CDI)Cr-doped LiMn2O4Original brine15 mg/g--- (113)
 Graphene supported LiMn2O4Simulated Atacama brine4.34 mmol/g-Separation factor = 71.32 (Mg/Li)- (109)
 GO-encapsulated La-doped LiMn2O4Simulated salt-lake brine1.33 mmol/g80.4Separation factor = 126 (Mg/Li)- (117)
 PVDF-ethylenediamine with modified electrodesLiCl solution30 mg/g96 Over 0.9 current efficiency (118)
 AC/PB-20%LiCl24.42 mg/g∼95.1% (retention after 50 cycles) - (119)
 PM, NGLiCl with other cations-59–95.9% (Li-ions purity)Li/Mg = 268.1 Li/Na = 44.25- (120)
 Carbon-buffered Cr-doped LiMn1.9Cr0.1O4Original brine from Jiezechaka21 mg/g95.7% after 500 cyclesIncreased from 1.67 to 15813 Wh/mol (110)
 (C-LMO)Simulated brine18.1 mg/g--- (121)
Electrodialysis (ED)M-GA/PEISimulated brine-Not explicitly stated; but high purity achievedHigh Mg/Li to low (not numerically specified)First-stage: 29–39 Wh/mol; second-stage: 11–14 Wh/mol (105)
 Acid-treated Li0.29La0.57TiO3 (LA-LLT)Mixed alkaline solution (LiOH, NaOH, KOH); LIB leachate40 ppm of Li in 72 h∼100% after 72 hPerfect selectivity vs Na, K; No Mg reported- (104)
 Selemion CSO/ASV ion-exchange membranesHigh Mg/Li brine from Llullaillaco Salt Lake, Argentina-90%9.85 to 0.57- (122)
 LLTO ceramic ion-selective membraneArtificial brine (LiCl, NaCl, KCl)∼1.07 Wh/g of Li recovered∼100%Excellent Li/Na/K selectivity- (106)
 LiFePO4-based membraneSimulated brine∼25.3 (from Li content in μmol/g)∼94%60 to <1∼3.1 kWh/kg Li (93)
 Composite IEMSimulated brine1.2 mmol/g-High Mg/Li selectivity- (123)
 LATP-Al2O3 composite ceramic membrane, NASICONSimulated brine-77.15%40 to 2.147.6 kWh/kg Li2CO3 (89.6 Wh/mol of Li) (107)
 C4mim][TFSI] + TBP (RTIL system as Li carrier)Simulated brine--Mg/Li 50 to 0.516 Wh/g Li (111 Wh/mol of Li) (124)
 [C4mim][TFSI] + TBPNatural brine (West Taijinair)--53 to 0.26- (124)
 SPEEK/Mg–Li–MnOSimulated brine15.2 mg/g64% (pure Li-ions); 84% (in mix ions)Mg/Li reduced, SF = 4.82- (125)
 Commercial monovalent selective cation-exchange membraneSynthetic brine->85%Mg/Li SF = 2.7 (optimized)60–180 Wh/mol (126)

2.3. Adsorption/Ion Exchange

Common methods to recover Li from highly concentrated brine exhibit a range of disadvantages and constraints. (127−129) Adsorption and ion exchange techniques represent promising methodologies to recover Li-ions from RO brine, despite their low concentration present in such brine. (22,130) Ion exchange and adsorption processes are regarded as the most effective, economically viable, and efficient methods to extract Li-ions from diverse brine sources. The main benefit of these methods is their ability to effectively extract Li-ions from brines that have low concentrations. Among the technologies discussed, adsorption plays a crucial role in extracting Li-ions. This technique is considered as the most versatile technology of obtaining Li-ions directly from RO brines, notably in contexts with the brines that have low concentrations of Li-ions and a high ratio of Mg/Li. This preference for adsorption is attributed to several advantages such as a high recovery rate and high selectivity for Li which serve as additional concentration functions and are both cost-effective and environmentally sustainable. Further, with regard to cost-effectiveness and operational efficiency, adsorption methods are gaining considerable interest because many adsorbents especially Li sieves demonstrate excellent selectivity and adsorption characteristics for Li ions. (131−134) The effectiveness of Li recovery mostly depends upon the nature of adsorbent and also on the properties of brine, which include parameters like pH, Li-ion concentration, temperature, and ratio of Mg/Li, which also plays vital role in selection process. Research has primarily focused on two main categories of Li adsorbents: inorganic metal-based and organic ones. Selective Li extraction often employs metal-based adsorbents such as Li-aluminum layered double hydroxides and Ion sieves derived from Li titanium and Li manganese oxides. Organic adsorbents involve ion-imprinted polymers, ion-exchange resins, and other new generation of porous polymers such as hydrogels and their composites. Heterocyclic compounds, particularly crown ethers, are also of significant interest due to their selective binding affinity for Li-ions. (135) A schematic representation of adsorption and ion-exchange technology for the advantages for the recovery of Li-ions from brine is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11

Figure 11. Overview of adsorption and ion-exchange–based direct lithium extraction (DLE) from brines, highlighting selective Li-ion capture, regeneration, and sustainable lithium recovery.

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2.3.1. Li-Ion Sieves (LIS)

Li-ion sieves are inorganic adsorbent with Li-ions incorporated inside the crystalline structures of aluminum hydroxides or transition metal oxides such as manganese and titanium. The resultant compound is subsequently transformed into its oxide form. Subsequently, Li-ions are eluted from their crystallographic positions, while the unoccupied crystalline sites are maintained. As a result, the inorganic material, with its well-defined crystal lattice structure, can accommodate ions whose ionic radii will be smaller than or equal to Li-ions. This material exhibits a propensity to incorporate template ions, thereby facilitating the formation of an optimal crystal configuration. This phenomenon termed as ion-sieve effect facilitates selective Li extraction in this type of material. (136) In LIS, Li-ions can permeate vacancies within the solid matrix, which can be attributed to their relatively small ionic radius. The full process of the formation of ion-sieves is shown in Figure 12(a), (22,137) and the process of the selective recovery of Li-ions by utilizing LIS as adsorbents is shown in Figure 12(b). (22)

Figure 12

Figure 12. (a) The full process of the formation of ion-sieves adapted with permission from ref (137). Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (b) Process of the selective Li-ion adsorption adapted with permission from ref (22). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (c) Plot of the adsorption kinetics; (d, e) plots of pseudo-first-order kinetics and pseudo-second-order kinetics (d) HFTO and (e) HTO. Adapted with permission from ref (143). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (f) The method of the preparation of HMO-Ti ionic sieves and its adsorption–desorption mechanism; adapted with permission from ref (144). Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

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Recently, academic interest in titanium-based adsorbents, especially Li2TiO3 (LTO) and H2TiO3 (HTO), has increased because of their ecofriendly qualities and remarkable acidic stability. (138) Furthermore, during the dissolution process, it exhibits a minimal loss of material and demonstrates a high degree of selectivity in its adsorption properties. The unique properties of LTO position it as a promising candidate for various applications within the energy sector. Owing to its advantageous characteristics, LTO is extensively utilized across numerous practical applications. Furthermore, it consists of two distinct chemical configurations spinel phase titanate (H4Ti5O12) and layered titanate (H2TiO3). (139) The spinel phase, Li4Ti5O12 features a distinct arrangement where [LiO4] tetrahedral units are positioned alongside [TiO6] octahedral units. (140,141) On the other hand, in layered H2TiO3, one layers is completely made of Li; however, a 1/3 portion of another layer has Li-ions and a 2/3 portion has Ti ions; therefore, it can be chemically represented as Li(Li1/3Ti2/3)O2. (142)
H2TiO3 (HTO), a Ti-based LIS, is valued for its structural stability and impressive adsorption capabilities. Its precursor, LTO powder, tends to agglomerate, which complicates the separation after synthesis. Agglomeration reduces the availability of adsorption sites and the overall capacity. Wang et al. (143) tackled this challenge by doping LTO with magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles to reduce agglomeration. HTO doped with iron (HFTO) was created through acid washing to capture Li-ions from the water solution. After modification, HFTO exhibited a 20% higher adsorption capacity in comparison to HTO. The plot of the adsorption kinetics is shown under Figure 12(c–e). Unlike LTO, conventional LMO precursors have spinel crystal structures. The most common LMO precursors are LiMn2O4 and Li1.33Mn167O4 (Li4Mn5O12) and Li1.6Mn16O4 (Li2Mn2O5). LMO has the formula Li1+xMn2-xO4, with x ranging from 0 to 0.33. At x = 0, it is synthesized as LiMn2O4. LiMn2O4 is a key member of the spinel class, with the general formula AB2O4. It has a cubic crystal structure with a lattice constant of 0.825 nm. (22,144) Spinel LMO, Li1.6Mn16O4 exhibited high selectivity and extraction efficiency for Li extraction. But manganese dissolution restricts the practical use of the cyclic desorption process. In a study, Tu et al. (144) employed titanium surface doping to decrease Mn3+ ion disproportionation, enhancing the performance. LMO-Ti-6 exhibited the highest Li adsorption performance (47.71 mg/g) among Ti-doped LMO adsorbents with only a 1.65% Mn loss. Li-ion adsorption occurred via spontaneous chemisorption, accompanied by an expansion effect with increased temperature. The LMO-Ti-6 exhibited enhanced stability and selective adsorption in Qarhan brine. The method of the preparation of HMO-Ti ionic sieves and its adsorption–desorption mechanism is shown in Figure 12(f). Ma et al. (145) reported the fabrication of a spinel-type H4Ti5O12 (HTO) Li-ion sieve via a high-temperature solid-state route and systematically evaluated its performance for lithium recovery from aqueous brines. The study demonstrated that optimization of synthesis parameters, specifically the use of lithium acetate as the Li source, calcination at 800 °C, and acid washing with 0.3 M HCl produced a highly crystalline and stable HTO structure with superior adsorption behavior. The material exhibited a high Li+ adsorption capacity of 38.46 mg/g and followed pseudo-second-order kinetics, indicating a chemisorption-controlled mechanism governed by reversible Li+/H+ ion exchange. Selectivity studies confirmed a strong preference for Li+ over competing ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+), even under high Mg/Li ratios, while recyclability tests showed excellent stability with ∼96% capacity retention after five cycles. Structural and spectroscopic analyses further confirmed that lithium uptake occurred through lattice intercalation without structural degradation. Overall, the study highlights spinel-type HTO as a promising, chemically stable, and highly selective adsorbent for lithium recovery from complex brines, with a strong potential for industrial application in direct lithium extraction processes.

2.3.2. Li-Aluminum Layered Double Hydroxides (LiAl-LDHs)

The first synthesis of LiAl-LDHs occurred in 1978, utilizing aluminum hydroxides that had adsorbed onto ion exchange resins. (146) This process facilitated Li recovery from brine, leading to the formation of crystalline LDHs upon interaction with Li-ions. Subsequently, a dilute solution of LiCl was employed to elute the products and recover the Li-ions that had been adsorbed. (133) The adsorbents developed in this study were designated as LiAl-LDHs. (147) LiAl-LDHs have been extensively studied for their selective capacity for removing Li-ions. Because of stable adsorption performance, easy preparation processes, and the ease of elution with deionized water, LiAl- LDHs have emerged as highly suitable adsorbents for the industrial and commercial extraction of Li-ions. (148) LiAl-LDHs are very effective industrial adsorbents to recover Li-ions from brines, particularly those characterized by high Mg/Li ratios. (149) However, the utilization of this approach in sulfate (SO42–)-type brines is markedly limited due to the challenges associated with desorption, which stem from the spontaneous intercalation of sulfate ions. A novel strategy to modulate interlayer interactions was developed by incorporating PO43– ions into LiAl-LDHs beads, called BLDH-P. (150) The low binding energy and high diffusion barrier of sulfate ions in interlayers gave BLDH-P a unique property that inhibits sulfate ion intercalation. The BLDH-P material exhibited excellent Li-ion extraction due to increased interlayer spacing and selective electrostatic repulsion. The Li-ion uptakes were 5.26 and 3.96 mg/g under static and dynamic conditions, respectively. The steering interlayer interaction strategy in LiAl-LDHs beads is shown under Figure 13(a). Further, it was observed that with increasing content of PAN in BLDH-P, the adsorption capacity increased gradually (Figure 13(b)). The plots of adsorption kinetics and the intraparticle diffusion are shown in Figure 13(c) and (d), which showed that adsorption of Li-ions was a three-step process. It was also reported that its desorption capacity also remained stable over ten cycles (Figure 13(e)). In contrast, BLDH-Cl declined gradually, likely due to SO42– ion accumulation, which binds to the positively charged LiAl-LDH layers and hinders desorption. LiAl-LDHs represent one of the most advanced materials to recover Li-ions. In a study, Gao et al. (151) suggested an innovative binder free direct construction strategy for the synthesis of LiAl-LDHs utilizing a semisacrificial nickel aluminum foam (NiAl-F). Through a comprehensive examination of the transformation process, it has been demonstrated that adhesive-free adsorbents can surpass the original microgram level (μg/cm2). It was also demonstrated that Fe3+ ions can be effectively integrated into a binder-free LiAlFe-LDH@NiAl-F adsorbent, resulting in a significantly higher adsorption capacity. Furthermore, this adsorbent exhibited remarkable stability, maintaining its performance over more than 30 adsorption–desorption cycles. The full scheme of binderless LiAl-LDH@NiAl-F preparation is shown in Figure 13(f).

Figure 13

Figure 13. (a) The steering interlayer interaction strategy in LiAl-LDHs beads; (b) effect of PAN concentration on Li extraction; (c) adsorption kinetics; (d) intraparticle diffusion and (e) desorption of Li from BLDH-P and BLDH-Cl adapted with permission from ref (150). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (f) The full scheme of binder less LiAl-LDH@NiAl-F preparation adapted with permission from ref (151). Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

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2.3.3. Polymers Based Adsorbents

Recently, different polymers-based materials including hydrogel composites and ion-imprinted polymers (IIPs) such as crown ethers were also utilized successfully as potential adsorbents to selectively removal Li-ions from brine. (152) Frequently used crown ether to adsorb Li-ions from brine is the 12-crown-4-ether (12C4E), but at ambient temperature it behaves as a liquid which could create problems in separation after adsorption. Therefore, it should be grafted onto or incorporated with some other material such as poly(ether sulfone) (PES) or metal organic frameworks. (152) Zhang et al. (153) developed an innovative MOF based adsorbent, by incorporating carboxybenzo 12C4E onto MOF-808 matrix through a grafting process which exhibited Li-ion extraction capacity of 30.4 mg/g which attained adsorption equilibrium in 15 min. The adsorption isotherm and kinetic plots are shown in Figure 14(a). Selective adsorption of Li-ions in comparison other cations was successfully accomplished. It was further suggested that it was due to the optimal compatibility of the ionic diameter of L-ions with the dimensions of the 12C4E cavity. Through experimental characterizations and theoretical calculations, it has been established that the 12C4E units had a vital role in selectively extracting Li-ions. In a study, thermos-responsive polymer based adsorbent was designed and synthesized based on a novel crown ether-bearing monomer and N-isopropylacrylamide (NiPAAm). (154) The LCST of the synthesized adsorbent varied in the range from 6 to 26.5 °C, depending on the varying ratios of crown ether to NiPAAm. In investigating the sorption performance of crown ethers, several parameters were systematically varied, including pH, temperature, and the Li:crown ether ratio. The full scheme of the synthesis of BCEEM and further copolymerization with NiPAAm is shown under the Figure 14(b). A recent study introduced a novel methodology that synergistically integrated interface solar vaporization technology with adsorption, aimed at enhancing Li extraction. (32) The adsorbent was synthesized by the modification of poly(pyrrole) with halloysite nanotubes (HNTs), and thereafter its hydrogel composite (PPy@HNTs/PVA hydrogel) was prepared with poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) using glutaraldehyde as a cross-linking agent. The complete scheme of the synthesis of PPy@HNTs/PVA hydrogel composite is shown in Figure 14(c). Following the preparation of a hydrogel composite, it was subsequently exposed to illumination conditions of 1 sun. Under these conditions, synthesized adsorbent exhibited a 2.97 kg/m2·h evaporation rate, alongside an evaporation efficiency of 93.2%. Additionally, it demonstrated optimal resistance to both salt and staining. Under the synergistic influence of HNTs, the hydrogel exhibited a significant adsorption capacity for Li ions during the solar vaporization process, achieving an 84.15% adsorption rate and 168.3 mg/g maximum adsorption capacity. The adsorption isotherm and kinetics plots are shown under Figure 14(d). Further, the adsorption rate decreased during the multicycle studies, and it reduced to 50.5% in the fifth cycle, which was 84.15% in the first cycle (as shown in Figure 14(d)). A comparative overview of Li-ion uptake by diverse adsorbents from multiple brine types is presented in Table 3.

Figure 14

Figure 14. (a) The adsorption isotherm and kinetics plots of Li-ions adsorption onto MOF-808-12C4E adapted with permission from ref (153). Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (b) The full scheme of the synthesis of BCEEM and further copolymerization with NIPAM adapted with permission from ref (154). Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (c) Complete scheme of the synthesis of PPy@HNTs/PVA hydrogel composite adapted with permission from ref (32). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (d) The plots of adsorption isotherm, kinetics, and multicycle use of PPy@HNTs/PVA for Li-ions extraction adapted with permission from ref (32). Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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Table 3. A Comparative Overview of Li-Ion Uptake by Diverse Adsorbents from Multiple Brine Types
adsorbentLi sourceadsorption parametersadsorption capacity (mg/g)adsorption isothermadsorption kineticsref
Manganese based ion exchange nanoparticlesSynthetic brineDose: 2.0 g/L; temp: 70 °C18.0-- (128)
High layer charge layered double hydroxidesSynthetic brineTemp: 30 °C5.45SipsPSO (130)
Ion-exchange resin: (K2629)Synthetic brineDose: 1.0 g; temp: 25 °C1.84LangmuirPSO (134)
Ion-exchange resin: (TP207)Synthetic brineDose: 1.0 g; temp: 25 °C2.54LangmuirPSO 
Ion-exchange resin: (TP208)Synthetic brineDose: 1.0 g; temp: 25 °C1.23LangmuirPSO 
PVB- H2TiO3Simulated brinepH: 9.2; adsorption time: 3 h12-- (139)
P(BCEEM-st-NiPAAm)Simulated brineTemp: 17 °C; pH: 10; adsorption time: 24 h0.075 mmol/g-- (155)
Fe-doped H2TiO3Simulated brineDose: 0.10g; temp: 25 °C; pH: 12.034.27LangmuirPSO (143)
HMO-Ti-6Simulated brineDose: 0.05g; temp: 25 °C; pH: 12.047.71LangmuirPSO (144)
3D-LIS-600LiOHDose: 0.5 g; temp: 25 °C; pH: 12.112.3-- (156)
M–T– LISSimulated brineTemp: 55 °C; pH: 12.531.80LangmuirPSO (157)
Li/Al-LDHsSimulated brineTemp: 30 °C7.26LangmuirPSO (148)
BLDH-PSimulated brineDose: 20g/L; temp: 30 °C5.26-- (150)
MOF-808–12C4ESimulated brineDose: 5 mg30.4LangmuirPSO, PFO (153)
PEF-HTOGeothermal brineDose: 0.1 g; temp: 60 °C; pH: 1225.78LangmuirPSO (158)
PVA/HTOSimulated brineDose: 20 mg; pH: 1112.0LangmuirPSO (159)
CTS/LMOSimulated brineTemp: 35 °C11.4-PSO (160)
PVA/CAM-HMOSimulated brineDose: 200 mg; pH: 1123.26-PSO (161)
Cellulose/HMOSimulated brineDose: 0.1 g; temp: 25 °C; pH: 10.521.64LangmuirPSO (162)
Porous HTOSimulated brineTemp: 60 °C; pH: 1212.29LangmuirPSO (163)
PPy@HNTs-hydrogelsSimulated brineDose: 0.5 g; temp: 25 °C168.3FreundlichPFO (32)
HMO/PANSimulated brineTemp: 25 °C; pH: 1110.3Langmuir- (155)
PAM-MnO2 ion-sieveSimulated brineDose: 0.2 g; Temp: 20 °C2.64 mmol/gLangmuir- (164)
HTO-PVA/PAAmSimulated brineDose: 100 mg; temp: 25 °C; pH: 1231.31LangmuirPSO (165)
λ-MnO2-PPy/PVASimulated brineDose: 100 mg; temp: 25 °C; pH: 527.93LangmuirPSO (166)
Fluorine-rich supramolecular hydrogel (FCH)Simulated brineDose: 15 mg; temp: 25 °C; pH: 12122.3LangmuirIntraparticle diffusion (167)
LIIP@N-CMS/GA imprinted filmSimulated brineTemp: 25 °C; pH: 9.041.05LangmuirPSO (168)
Granulated Li/Al-LDHsSalt Lake brineDose: 0.5 g; Temp: 25 °C14.5LangmuirPSO (169)
Fe/Ti-0.15(H)Simulated brineDose: 1.5 g/L; temp: 25 °C; pH: 12.0; adsorption time: 12 h53.3LangmuirPSO (170)
HTO@BCALiOHDose: 0.5 g; adsorption time: 12 h39.8LangmuirPSO (171)
LDH/chitosan composite hydrogelSimulated brineDose: 0.3 g/10 mL;; temp: 30 °C pH: 6.512.5Langmuir, SipsPSO (48)
Magnetic LDHsSalt Lake brineDose: 1 g/30 mL; temp: 25 °C; adsorption time: 10 h6.0LangmuirPSO (47)
Granulated Li/Al-LDHsSalt Lake brineDose: 4.0 g/150 mL; temp: 30 °C; adsorption time: 72 h4.82SipsPSO (172)

2.4. Solvent Extraction

Solvent extraction, or liquid–liquid extraction, is a cost-effective and high-yield method for Li recovery from brine. Initially developed for uranium extraction in the late 1940s, it has become a commercial technology for extracting and separating various metals. (173) This process uses organic solvents capable of dissolving significant amounts of LiCl with good selectivity toward unwanted salts. Several studies have reported on the extraction and separation of Li from brines using novel organic systems and various process mechanisms. (174) Tributyl phosphate (TBP) is a commonly studied extractant for Li recovery. Zhou et al. (175) examined TBP combined with kerosene, methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK), and 2-octanol, using ferric chloride (FeCl3), zinc chloride (ZnCl2), and chromium(III) chloride (CrCl3) as coextractants. The extraction capacity order was TBP/MIBK > TBP/kerosene > TBP/2-octanol with FeCl3, as illustrated in Figure 15(a). TBP/MIBK’s high extraction efficiency is due to the functional groups -P═O in TBP and -C═O in MIBK that aid Li extraction together. Additionally, the partition coefficient is higher at elevated concentrations of TBP, indicating that -P═O in TBP has greater extraction capability compared to -C═O in MIBK. Kerosene’s inert nature impacts its performance, while TBP/2-octanol’s lower performance is attributed to weak hydrogen bonding, affecting Li extraction. FeCl3 demonstrated superior performance compared to the other salts, with CrCl3 performing slightly better in TBP/2-octanol. In a continuity of the above study, Zhou et al. (176) used TBP/kerosene and FeCl3 to extract Li from brine at different Fe/Li ratios, with MgCl2, CaCl2, and NH4Cl as chloride sources. They found that Li extraction happens via cation exchange, requiring iron extraction first. As shown in Figure 15(b), Li’s partition coefficient increased with iron extractability. Li+ competed with NH4+, Ca2+, and Mg2+, but MgCl2 had weaker competition and a stronger salting-out effect, making it the best chloride source. The highest partition coefficient was achieved with MgCl2 at an Fe/Li = 1.9. Harvianto et al. (177) utilized thenoyltrifluoroacetone–trioctylphosphine oxide (TTA–TOPO) in kerosene, achieving efficient extraction of Li ions within 80 min. Postextraction, Li was stripped using acidic solutions; however, increasing the pH negatively impacted the stripping efficiency. When magnesium ions were precipitated by NH4OH before the solvent extraction, up to 65% of Li-ions could be extracted from seawater. Similarly, the presence of other metallic ions in seawater was found to reduce the extraction efficiency of Li-ions.

Figure 15

Figure 15. (a) Liquid–liquid equilibrium data for Li solution with TBP and cosolvents with FeCl3 as a coextracting agent adapted with permission from ref (175). Copyright 2011, American Chemical Society. (b) Relationship between the partition coefficient of Li and the extractability of iron at different Fe/Li ratios adapted with permission from ref (176). Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society. (c) Calculation of the theoretical stages of extraction using a McCabe–Thiele diagram adapted with permission from ref (178). Copyright 2016, Elsevier. (d) Simulation flow diagram for a three stage counter-current extraction process at an organic/aqueous ratio of 2/1 with initial Fe/Li = 1.3 for 10 min; adapted with permission from ref (178). Copyright 2016, Elsevier.

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Ji et al. (178) used three ether-based plasticizers─dioctyl phthalate (DOP), acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), and tri-n-butyl citrate (TBC)─to improve Li ion diffusion and solubility in the TBP-kerosene and FeCl3 extraction system. DOP provides the highest extraction efficiency due to its benzene ring conjugation effect. As shown in Figure 15(c), using a McCabe-Thiele plot, it was found that three stages are needed for complete Li extraction at an O/Aq ratio of 2/1. Three-stage counter-current experiments confirmed this, achieving a final Li concentration of 0.0136 g/L, or 99.5% extraction efficiency, as shown in Figure 15(d). IR spectra before and after extraction showed that Li coordinates with LiFeCl4 via hydrogen bonding. The complex formula is (LiFeCl4·2TBP·nH2O)·0.1DOP. This indicates that single-current extraction reached 99.5% efficiency. The proposed mechanism involves TBP and DOP molecules bonding with the Fe–Li complex through hydrogen bonding, preventing third-phase formation, reducing causticity, and minimizing TBP loss.
Su et al. (179) proposed a ternary solvent extraction system consisting of TBP, FeCl3 and P507 (2-ethylhexyl phosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester) to overcome the problem of acid stripping of TBP/FeCl3 from the organic phase. The mechanism of extraction of Li from high Mg containing synthetic brine occurs via the complex [Li(TBP)2][FeCl4] without any involvement of TBP as shown in Figure 16(a). However, once Li is stripped off using water from the organic phase, TBP and P507 represented as HL synergistically coordinate with Fe3+ to form [FeCl2L·(HL)·2TBP)] as shown in Figure 16(b) resulting in an efficient stripping of Li because of the broken structure of [Li(TBP)2][FeCl4], whereas Fe3+ remains in the organic phase making it readily available for the next extraction cycle. This process is highly sustainable as only water is used for stripping of Li as compared to the other processes where HCl is used. In continuity of the above study Su et al. (180) used the same ternary system to extract Li extraction from real salt lake brine, in batch and multistage simulated counter-current modes. It was found that the three-stage counter-current extraction achieved 99.8% Li recovery. The loaded strip liquor contained (g/L) Li:20.9, Mg:2.2, and B:1.6.

Figure 16

Figure 16. (a) Li extraction and stripping mechanism using the ternary solvent approach TBP-FeCl3-P507; (b) proposed structures as a result of the presence of P507 (2-ethylhexyl phosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester); adapted with permission from ref (179). Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. (c) tThe effect of dosage of IL in TBP as a function of extraction efficiency adapted with permission from ref (181). Copyright 2014, Elsevier. (d) Extraction efficiency as a function of ratio of molar ratio of ClO4– and Li-ions adapted with permission from ref (182). Copyright 2015, Elsevier. (e) Dosage of ILs as a function of extraction efficiency and distribution ratio from ref (183). Copyright 2016, Elsevier. (f) Extraction efficiency of synthesized ILs and [DEHP], as a function of HCl concentration in the aqueous phase adapted with permission from ref (184). Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

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Ionic liquids as designer solvents have been used for Li extraction. Shi et al. (181) employed 1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([C4mim][PF6]) with TBP as the extractant. Figure 16(c) shows that extraction efficiency increased with IL concentration in TBP up to 10% and then decreased due to excess IL in the organic phase, limiting the Li-TBP reaction. FTIR and slope-based analysis inferred a cation exchange mechanism, as shown in the following equation:
Liaq++C4mimorg++2TBPorg→[Li·2TBP]org++C4mimaq+
In similar research Shi et al. (182) used the same ILs as in the above study with sodium perchlorate (NaClO4) as the coextraction agent and TBP as the extractant. The extraction efficiency is enhanced with the increase in the molar ratio of ClO4 to Li-ion as shown in Figure 16(d). The chain length was varied and showed a negative effect on the extraction efficiency. The extraction conditions were optimized, and it was found that single-stage counter-current extraction achieves an efficiency of 87.28%, and with three stages, the efficiency reaches 99.12%. Building on the previous study, Shi et al. (183) investigated butyl-based imidazolium ILs with bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide anion and TBP. Figure 16(e) shows that Li-ion extraction efficiency was highest at 81.75% when the ionic liquid volume ranged from 0 to 10%, but decreased to 70.39% as the volume increased to 30%. Optimizing ionic liquid concentration is thus essential for maximum extraction. The distribution ratio (DLi) dropped from 4.48 to 2.38 with increasing ionic liquid volume. Extraction experiments conducted at 303–343 K revealed that the reaction is exothermic, indicated by negative enthalpy and Gibbs free energy changes.
To overcome the problem of toxicity issues related to fluorinated ILs, Shi et al. synthesized two butyl and octyl ammonium-based ILs with bis(2-ethylhexyl)-phosphate [DEHP] anion. As a similarity to the imidazolium-based ILs, the chain length has a negative effect on the extraction efficiency, (182) and the reaction was exothermic based on a similar parametric approach of the thermodynamic properties. (183) The concentration of HCl in the aqueous medium has a negative effect on the extraction efficiency of the ILs as shown in Figure 16(f). The decrease was attributed to blocking DEHP anion sites due to preferential acid extraction over Li. These ions were easily removed from the organic phase without needing a complexing agent. (184) Yang et al. (185) used hydroxyl-functionalized ionic liquid, 1-hydroxyethyl-3-methyl imidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([OHEMIM][NTf2]), and a neutral ligand, trialkyl phosphine oxide (Cyanex923), as an extractant. The extraction parameters were optimized, and it was found that a 93% extraction efficiency could be achieved in a single run. The extraction mechanism was found to be anion exchange based on the experiment and UV visible spectroscopic characterization.

2.5. Membrane-Based Technologies

Membrane technology has become increasingly viable for industrial value extraction and separation, offering benefits like energy efficiency and continuous processing. (186) Li extraction from brine is particularly promising with NF and electrodialysis (ED) techniques due to their cost-effectiveness and low environmental impact. (187) However, the high Mg/Li ratio in brine poses a challenge, reducing the Li selectivity in commercial NF membranes. To address this, researchers are developing advanced NF membranes and optimizing operational conditions. (188) The Donnan effect plays a crucial role, with positively charged membranes offering significant advantages for cation separation. (189) Sun et al. (190) studied Li recovery from brine with a high Mg/Li ratio using the DL-2450 NF membrane. They found that a high operating pressure and low pH, combined with membrane distillation, could address this challenge. Figure 17(a) shows positive Mg-ion rejection and negative Li-ion rejection, indicating the membrane favors Li over magnesium ions. Higher pressure increases membrane flux, reducing Mg-ions concentration in the permeate while increasing its retention. Conversely, Li-ions retention decreases due to Li’s smaller hydration radius allowing more Li to pass through the membrane. Figure 17(b,c) shows that higher pH enhances Mg-ions rejection but reduces Li-ions rejection, improving Li-Mg separation. However, elevated temperatures and high Mg/Li ratios decrease Li extraction efficiency. Li et al. (191) utilized the Donnan effect to create a positively charged polyamide (PA) composite NF hollow fiber membrane through interfacial polymerization of 4-bis(3-aminopropyl)piperazine (DAPP) and trimesoyl chloride (TMC) on a polyacrylonitrile (PAN) ultrafiltration hollow fiber support. The DAPP content in the aqueous phase was crucial for the separation performance. Figure 17(d) shows that as DAPP concentration increased from 0.25 to 1.0 wt %, Mg-ion rejection rose sharply from 29.7% to 70.0%, then declined with further increase. Similarly, Li-ions rejection increased from 16% to 26% with rising DAPP concentration up to 1.5 wt %. High DAPP concentrations resulted in thicker membranes but lower degrees of cross-linking due to less TMC. The salt rejection order was MgCl2 > MgSO4 > NaCl ≥ LiCl, with a notable 47.5% difference between MgCl2 and LiCl owing to the Donnan effect. Zhang et al. (192) developed a positively charged NF membrane using polyethersulfone (PES) with polyethyleneimine (PEI), and modified multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs-OH) grafted with piperazine (PIP) to enhance permeability. Testing with a 2000 ppm simulated brine solution showed the membrane flux declined to 43 L/m2 h, with Mg-ions and Li-ions rejection rates of 95% and 18%, respectively, as shown in Figure 17(e). For 130.1 g/L brine with Ca2+ and Na+, the flux dropped to 0.5 L.m–2 h–1, with Mg and Li-ions rejections of 78% and 15%, as seen in Figure 17(f). The performance decline is due to high salt concentration, reducing driving force and causing fouling. Overall, these membranes effectively separate Li and Mg-ions, while maintaining stability.

Figure 17

Figure 17. (a) Effect of pressure on rejection rate of ions; (b) effect of pH on rejection rate of ions; (c) effect of pH on separation factor and permeate amount of pure water adapted with permission from ref (190). Copyright 2015, Elsevier. (d) Flux and rejection for different salts by the positively charged composite hollow fiber as a function DAPP concentration adapted with permission from ref (191). Copyright 2015, Elsevier. Panels (e) and (f) permeate flux and rejection rate performance as a function of time for two simulated brine mixtures adapted with permission from ref (192). Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

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Wu et al. (193) improved PA membranes by anchoring the quaternary ammonium group from amine-functionalized ionic liquid [AP1M3Im][NTf2]. The modified membranes showed high water permeance (37.8 L m–2 h–1) and selective rejection of mono/divalent cations: 89.0% for MgSO4, 83.8% for MgCl2, 54.6% for Na2SO4, 30.1% for NaCl, and 24.4% for LiCl as shown in Figure 18(a) and (b). For a brine with a Mg/Li ratio of 20, NF-IL-2.0% achieved 81.9% Mg-ion rejection and −45.2% Li-ion rejection, resulting in a permeate Mg/Li ratio of 3.5 and selectivity (SLi,Mg) of 8.121 as shown in Figure 18(c) and (d). In a new approach, Wu et al. (194) designed robust silica-based ceramic NF membranes with a negative charge for efficient Li extraction from salt lakes. The organic–inorganic hybrid silica NF membranes was prepared by dip-coating a 1,2-bis(triethoxysilyl)ethane (BTESE)-derived separation layer on tubular TiO2 support. The membrane calcinated at 400 °C (M1 h–400) exhibited a narrow pore size distribution (0.63–1.66 nm) due to dehydroxylation and thermal degradation of organic bridge groups. The triple-coated membrane (M3 h–400) achieved a permeability of about 9.5 L m2– h–1 bar–1 and rejections of 74.7% for LiCl and 20.3% for MgCl2 under 6 bar pressure, with the Donnan exclusion effect dominating the salt rejection mechanism. In a novel approach, Pramanik et al. (195) combined NF with MD to enhance Li concentration from simulated Salt Lake brine by removing divalent ions like Ca and Mg-ions. Under various conditions, two commercial NF membranes, NF90 and NF270, were evaluated for Li and Mg rejection. Optimal Li recovery was achieved at a Mg/Li ratio of 10, pH of 5, and pressure of 8 bar, reducing the Mg/Li molar ratio to 0.19 with NF90 and 2.1 with NF270. The Li was further enriched by up to 80% using the MD process, showcasing the method’s efficiency for Li recovery. Electrodialysis (ED) has gained attention as an effective method for the extraction of Li from brines. Nie et al. (196) used ED with monovalent selective ion-exchange membranes to separate Li and Mg-ions from synthetic multinary mixtures. They have used alternating cation and anion exchange membranes with an applied electrical field to recover Li from brines by allowing ions to move toward their respective electrodes. From Figure 18(e), it is observed that after 3 h of operation, the Mg/Li mass decreased by 6.7–21.8 times. However, the Mg/Li ratio of the concentrate stream increased over time due to Li-ion depletion in the dilute stream, requiring more Mg-ion ions to cross the cation-exchange membrane for electrical neutrality. In a study by Chen et al., (197) Li separation from brines using ED with monovalent selective ion exchange membranes was investigated. High concentrations of coexisting cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) hindered Li migration in the order of K+ > Na+> Ca2+> Mg2+. Figure 18(f) and (g) shows that increasing K/Li ratios decrease the Li-ion migration rate, extending Li transfer time and reducing Li recovery ratio (RLi). The highest RLi values, up to 72.38%, were observed at K/Li = 1–3. A partial dehydration model was proposed to explain cation migration, and it was concluded that high cation concentrations reduce current efficiency and increase specific energy consumption. Jiang et al. (198) explored an innovative method for producing LiOH from Li-containing brine using lab-scale electro–electrodialysis with a bipolar membrane (EEDBM). This approach employed both bipolar and cation exchange membranes with conventional electrodialysis (CED) serving as a pretreatment. The process yielded approximately 98% pure Li2CO3 powder. The study assessed the effects of current density and feed concentration on LiOH production and concluded that scaling up the process could reduce energy consumption, thereby offering environmental benefits.

Figure 18

Figure 18. (a–d) Performance parameters of membrane at different concentrations of ILs: (a) flux; (b) percent salt rejection; (c) ion rejection; and (d) selectivity (conditions: 0.6 MPa, pH = 6.4) adapted with permission from ref (193). Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (e) Effect of time on the (Mg/Li)P ratio of the permeate stream at varying feeds ratios of Mg/Li; adapted with permission from ref (196). Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (f, g) Effect of time on the (f) migration rate and (g) recovery of Li-ion at different ratios of K/L adapted with permission from ref (197). Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

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Membranes based on polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMs) have emerged as promising materials for the sustainable extraction of lithium from brines in electrodialysis processes. The incorporation of hydrophilic functional groups into PIM structures enables exceptional ion-separation selectivity, allowing rapid transport of monovalent alkali cations such as Li+ while effectively rejecting larger divalent ions including Mg2+. (199) Recent advances have also focused on developing novel dibenzodioxin-based PIM membranes with enhanced transport properties specifically tailored for lithium ions in aqueous media. Chemical modification through acid hydrolysis of these PIM structures significantly improves lithium ion permeability compared to other alkali metal counterparts, with demonstrated selectivity in electrochemical flow cell tests showing capacity retention of 99% over 50 cycles at practical operating current densities. (200) PIM-derived artificial lithium membranes have demonstrated exceptionally efficient transport with selectivity factors greater than 10 against both sodium and potassium ions, where the transport efficiency and selectivity can be tuned by controlling synthesis conditions. (201) These studies collectively demonstrate that PIM-based membranes represent a scalable and versatile platform for addressing the growing demand for selective lithium separation technologies in the renewable energy sector.
Covalent organic framework (COF) membranes have emerged as a transformative technology for lithium extraction from salt-lake brines, addressing critical challenges in meeting global lithium demand while minimizing environmental impact. (202) These advanced membranes achieve exceptional lithium-ion selectivity through carefully engineered pore architectures and functional group modifications. For example, triazine-based COF membranes with dehydration-enhanced ion recognition mechanisms can achieve Li+/Mg2+ separation with nearly complete Mg2+ rejection, enabling efficient lithium recovery with high product purity (Li2CO3: 99.3%) under electrodialysis conditions. (203) The remarkable selectivity arises from the construction of energy wells and hydrophilic channels within the COF structure that promote Li+ hopping transport through sulfonate side-chains while imposing prohibitive energy barriers for competing Mg2+ ions. Additionally, randomly oriented COF membranes incorporating strategic functional groups such as sulfonic moieties can achieve selectivity ratios beyond detection limits for competing cations like Na+ and K+ over Li+, while maintaining enhanced ion flux when driven by electrical potential. (204) These advances demonstrated how rational COF design leveraging pore confinement effects, tailored functional groups, and optimized ion-binding sites can overcome the traditional permeability-selectivity trade-off inherent in conventional nanofiltration approaches, thereby establishing a promising pathway for sustainable and energy-efficient lithium extraction from complex brine systems.
Lithium aluminum titanium phosphate (LATP) membranes have emerged as promising inorganic ion-selective materials for direct lithium extraction from brine sources. A key study by Habiba et al. demonstrated the fabrication of porous alumina-supported LATP membranes using a scalable citric acid-assisted sol–gel coating method, which achieved a high lithium ion flux of 215 mmol/h/m2 and remarkable Li+/Mg2+ selectivity of 33 when applied voltage of 2 V was used in electrodialysis. (205) The LATP material, based on the NASICON-type structure, exhibits fast lithium-ion conductivity through interstitial pathways, making it particularly effective for separating lithium from competing ions like sodium and magnesium in complex brine solutions. (206) Additionally, recent research has shown that doping LATP-based solid electrolytes with divalent cations such as Mg2+ can further enhance lithium-ion conductivity, with studies reporting improvements up to 3-fold compared to undoped LATP, thereby increasing the efficiency of lithium recovery processes. (207) The advantages of LATP-based separation technologies lie in their robust ion-selectivity, compatibility with harsh brine environments containing high Na+ and Mg2+ concentrations, and potential for scalable manufacturing, positioning them as a viable alternative to traditional liquid electrolyte systems for sustainable lithium resource recovery.

2.6. Hybrid Methods

Rising Li consumption necessitates the development of advanced recovery techniques that maximize efficiency, selectivity, and sustainability. By combining different extraction techniques, hybrid methods have shown great potential in addressing the drawbacks of traditional processes. (208) Membrane-assisted precipitation combines NF or electrodialysis with chemical precipitation, effectively removing impurities and concentrating Li-ions before final recovery. (209) Electrochemical-adsorption hybrids, such as capacitive deionization coupled with Li-ion sieves, enhance Li selectivity while reducing energy consumption, making them particularly suitable for brines with high Mg/Li ratios. (210) Solvent extraction-membrane separation systems utilize ionic liquids in combination with selective membranes to achieve high-purity Li recovery while minimizing solvent loss and environmental impact. (211) Electrochemical ion pumping integrated with adsorption leverages Li-selective electrodes in conjunction with ion-exchange materials to improve Li uptake and separation. Additionally, thermal evaporation coupled with NF accelerates the Li concentration while mitigating water loss, ensuring a more efficient and sustainable extraction process. These hybrid methodologies demonstrate significant potential for large-scale Li recovery, offering enhanced process efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and reduced environmental footprint compared to those of standalone techniques. Further research into optimizing these integrated approaches could provide the foundation for next-generation Li extraction technologies.
In a study, an innovative and energy-efficient hybrid approach was reported for Li recovery from simulated seawater RO brine by coupling direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) with electrically switched ion-exchange (ESIX). (208) The DCMD step employed electrospun nanofiber membranes made of PVDF integrated with reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which significantly improved the membrane hydrophobicity, thermal resistance, and mechanical integrity. The optimized rGO-PVDF membrane achieved a high-water contact angle (142°) and stable performance with minimal pore wetting, enabling up to 12% freshwater recovery and enriching the Li concentration in the brine by a factor of 2.4. The concentrated brine was then subjected to ESIX using a LiAlO2-based selective electrode that captured and released Li through electrochemical cycling, eliminating the need for harsh chemicals or high energy inputs. The ESIX stage operated with high selectivity and efficiency, yielding an overall 91.8% Li recovery rate from low-concentration brine (0.34–0.85 ppm Li-ions). Importantly, the rGO-PVDF membrane showed excellent antiscaling properties and maintained over 93% of its initial water flux after multiple cycles, confirming its durability in hypersaline conditions. This DCMD-ESIX hybrid system maximized not only Li extraction but also recovered water, aligning with zero liquid discharge strategies. The study highlights the synergistic advantage of combining thermal membrane processes for brine concentration with electrochemical methods for selective Li-ion recovery.
Another study investigated a dual-membrane hybrid system combining electrically enhanced membrane filtration and ESIX for selective Li recovery from low-concentration sources. (209) A CNT-based conductive ultrafiltration membrane was used in the EEMF stage to preconcentrate Li+ ions from dilute brine, achieving a 2.5-fold increase in Li concentration while repelling competing ions like Ca and Mg-ions. This preconcentrated stream was then treated using ESIX with a LiFePO4 electrode, which selectively adsorbed Li ions and released them upon polarity reversal. The system demonstrated a Li recovery efficiency of 80.3% over multiple cycles, with high selectivity and stability. Additionally, energy consumption was significantly reduced compared to conventional electrodialysis methods because of low applied voltages and the separation of enrichment and recovery stages. The results validate the effectiveness of integrating EEMF and ESIX to enhance both the concentration and selective separation of Li from complex aqueous streams.

3. Challenges and Drawbacks of Li Extraction Techniques

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Although different extraction techniques offer promising pathways for Li-ion recovery from brine, each faces significant challenges that hinder their long-term sustainability, feasibility, and large-scale adoption. (212) A major challenge of Li extraction technologies is managing the large amounts of spent brine produced. This issue is overlooked, assuming that spent brine will be discarded in underground water bodies or nearby salt lakes. However, such practices could significantly disrupt natural brine reserves, leading to additional complications in future recovery cycles. The impact of altered spent brine composition, including toxic chemicals, on aquatic ecosystems in lake environments is a critical concern. All of the different Li extraction methods currently in use have their own limitations and pose different challenges.
Solvent extraction techniques for Li recovery face several challenges. Organic solvents and ionic liquids are commonly used in this technique, which are often toxic and difficult to recycle. Their use raises major environmental concerns. Disposing of residual chemicals poses significant risks to soil and aquatic systems, potentially causing long-term ecological damage. This methodology often requires careful regulation of chemical parameters, increasing complexity and costs. The process’s high energy demand undermines sustainability, especially on a large scale or in areas lacking proper chemical waste management infrastructure.
The precipitation method presents several significant limitations concerning economic viability, sustainability, and technological feasibility. The process requires substantial quantities of freshwater, thereby raising significant sustainability concerns, particularly in regions characterized by water scarcity. The process generates solid waste characterized by the presence of impurities, including magnesium and calcium, thereby posing significant environmental challenges as well as complications related to disposal. From a financial standpoint, attaining elevated levels of Li purity frequently requires the implementation of supplementary processing stages, which consequently lead to an escalation in both operational costs and energy consumption. From a technological standpoint, the method faces challenges related to efficiency when applied to brines with low Li concentrations. This limitation impacts its scalability and overall effectiveness across various resource environments. These factors, when taken together, obstruct the feasibility of this approach for Li extraction on a large scale, both economically and environmentally.
The electrochemical method for Li recovery from brine faces several challenges. It is highly energy-intensive, leading to elevated operational costs, particularly when processing brines with low Li concentrations or unfavorable Mg/Li ratios. The need for advanced membranes and electrodes further increases costs as these materials are often expensive and have limited lifespans, requiring frequent replacement. From a sustainability perspective, the high energy demands make the process less environmentally friendly, especially if powered by nonrenewable energy sources. Technologically, the method faces challenges in maintaining efficiency and selectivity in separating Li from other ions, such as magnesium, which can lead to decreased recovery rates. Additionally, the infrastructure requirements and complex system maintenance limit its scalability and accessibility in regions lacking advanced technological capabilities. These drawbacks make it difficult to implement the electrochemical methods on a large scale in a sustainable and cost-efficient manner.
The sorption methods present several challenges. While these methods can be highly selective, the adsorbents and ion exchange materials often have limited lifespans, requiring frequent regeneration or replacement, which increases operational costs. The synthesis of these materials can also be expensive and energy-intensive, reducing the cost-effectiveness of the process. From a sustainability perspective, the regeneration process often uses chemicals that can generate waste. Additionally, these methods may struggle with efficiency when processing brines with low Li concentrations or high levels of competing ions. The technology also demands precise control and monitoring, making the process complex and less accessible for large-scale or remote applications.
In summary, existing Li recovery techniques face challenges related to high costs, environmental impacts, and technical inefficiencies, limiting their large-scale application. Future efforts should prioritize optimizing these methods to enhance efficiency, reduce waste, and improve sustainability while ensuring economic viability. The main challenges of currently used technologies for Li-ions recovery from brine is also summarized in Figure 19.

Figure 19

Figure 19. Overview of conventional lithium recovery techniques, including solvent extraction, precipitation, electrochemical extraction, and adsorption-based methods, highlighting their key limitations.

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4. Conclusions and Future Prospects

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The rapid escalation in both demand and price of Li, driven by growing electronics and electric vehicle industries, necessitates urgent consideration of sustainable Li recovery from alternative sources. Ensuring a stable Li supply is crucial for meeting future energy storage demands while minimizing the environmental impact. Li brines hold almost 60% of total global Li reserves; they represent promising sources of Li. Additionally, the vast Li content in seawater and the growing environmental concerns associated with desalination brine disposal are key factors driving the development and adoption of innovative Li recovery technologies. Current studies on Li extraction from brine are attracting attention, but it is still in its early developmental stages. While various extraction techniques, including adsorption, precipitation, membrane separation, electrochemical methods, and solvent extraction, have been explored, each comes with inherent limitations, such as selectivity issues, high operational costs, and energy-intensive processes. This Review has examined the current advancements in Li recovery using these methods. The comparative strengths, limitations, and future pathways of these technologies have been consolidated and are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Summary of Li Recovery Techniques: Parameters, Advantages, Challenges, and Outlook
techniquekey parametersadvantageschallengesresearch outlook/next steps
Adsorption/ion exchangeLi-ion selectivity (esp. over Mg-ions), adsorption capacity (mg/g), pH range, regeneration efficiencyHigh selectivity, reusable, applicable to low Li concentrationsSlow kinetics, fouling, limited regeneration cyclesDesign of low-cost, highly selective, regenerable sorbents, fast kinetics
Solvent extractionSolvent selectivity, phase ratio, distribution coefficientHigh Li purity, continuous processing possibleOrganic solvent loss, toxicity, emulsificationDevelopment of greener extractants and stable systems
PrecipitationpH, precipitation agent type, Mg/Li interferenceSimple operation, low-cost reagentsPoor selectivity, coprecipitation with Mg/CaSelective coprecipitants; integration with upstream Mg removal
Electrochemical separationElectrode selectivity, current density, membrane typeLow energy consumption, precise ion controlElectrode fouling, membrane degradationDurable electrode/membrane materials; selective transport layers
Membrane separationMembrane selectivity (Li vs Mg), flux rate, fouling resistanceEnergy-efficient, modular, scalableLimited Li selectivity, fouling, high Mg-ion interferenceDesign of highly Li-ions selective membranes; antifouling coatings
Hybrid methodsCoupled processes (e.g., CDI or ED coupled with adsorption)Synergistic performance, process intensificationOperational complexity, cost, integration challengesModular hybrid system design; pilot-scale validation
Therefore, further advancements in materials science, process optimization, and system integration are essential to improving efficiency, selectivity, and scalability. To address these challenges, the development of novel and hybrid technologies combining multiple approaches─such as membrane-based electrochemical extraction, ion-selective sorbents, and green solvent systems─offers promising potential. Advanced materials, including functionalized adsorbents, nanoporous membranes, and bioinspired ligands, can significantly improve Li selectivity and recovery rates. Moreover, machine learning and artificial intelligence-driven process optimization may enable smarter, more efficient extraction strategies, reducing energy consumption, and improving economic feasibility. Future studies should concentrate on developing these technologies for commercial implementation while ensuring environmental sustainability. Cost-benefit analyses, life cycle assessments, and environmental impact studies will be crucial to determining the viability of emerging Li recovery strategies. Additionally, interdisciplinary collaboration among material scientists, chemical engineers, and industrial stakeholders will be vital for bridging the gap between laboratory-scale innovations and real-world applications.
In conclusion, while significant challenges remain in selective Li recovery or extraction, ongoing advancements in novel and hybrid extraction techniques, especially adsorption coupled with electrochemical methods, provide a promising path forward. With sustained research efforts, policy support, and industrial collaboration, the transition toward sustainable Li extraction can contribute to securing a stable Li supply while mitigating environmental concerns, ensuring long-term sustainability in the global energy landscape.

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Authors
  • Authors
    • Maryam Alsuwaidi - DEWA R&D Center, Dubai Electricity & Water Authority (DEWA), P.O. Box 564, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
    • Akram Alfantazi - Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates;  Emirates Nuclear Technology Center (ENTC), Khalifa University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates;  Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-4039-5110
  • Author Contributions

    Hemant Mittal: Conceptualization, methodology design, literature search and analysis, primary manuscript drafting, and overall coordination of the review, preparation of figures and tables, manuscript editing, manuscript refencing. Maryam Alsuwaidi: Literature review, literature search and analysis, and primary manuscript drafting. Syed Nasir Shah: Literature review, literature search and analysis, Validation of technical content, and primary manuscript drafting. Akram Alfantazi: Formal analysis, review, and editing.

  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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  • Abstract

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    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Publication counts retrieved from the Scopus database using the search query: TITLE-ABS-KEY (lithium AND extraction) AND PUBYEAR > 1999 AND PUBYEAR < 2026.

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Different methods or techniques for Li extraction from brine.

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    Figure 3

    Figure 3. Schematic illustration of lithium recovery via chemical precipitation from high-Li brines, highlighting the process steps, recovered lithium products, and key advantages and limitations of the method.

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    Figure 4

    Figure 4. (a) Flowsheet for the crystallization-precipitation method adapted with permission from ref (80). Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (b, c) Effects of the reaction time on (b) percentage recovery and (c) precipitation rates; (d, e) effects of stirring rate on (d) percentage recovery and (e) precipitation rates of Li and Mg-ion recovery adapted with permission from ref (81). Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

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    Figure 5

    Figure 5. Overview of lithium recovery pathways from brines: (a) conventional evaporation–precipitation processes characterized by high energy and chemical consumption; (b) electrochemical lithium extraction methods offering improved energy efficiency and selectivity; (c) lithium insertion (charging) into lithium-selective electrodes under an applied potential; (d) lithium extraction (discharging) through controlled release of Li+ ions into a recovery solution; and (e) overall advantages of insertion–extraction systems operating under mild conditions with high lithium selectivity and reduced energy and chemical requirements.

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    Figure 6

    Figure 6. (a–c) Schematic illustration of reactions occurring at the anode and cathode sides Li extraction device; (d, e) comparison of the anode and cathode electrode potential with pH variations; (f) analysis of Mn dissolution losses at the anode and ion intercalation capacity at the cathode adapted with permission from ref (95). Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (g) Structure of the electrolytic cell adapted with permission from ref (96). Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (h) Schematic diagram of electrodes preparation adapted with permission from ref (97). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (i, j) Mg/Li ratio, Li+ concentration and current density for each cycle adapted with permission from ref (98). Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

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    Figure 7

    Figure 7. Schematic of (a) traditional electrodialysis, (b) bipolar membrane electrodialysis, and (c) selective electrodialysis adapted with permission from ref (102). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (d) Changes in the behavior of partially dehydrated ions and membrane pore structure at varying temperatures adapted with permission from ref (103). Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

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    Figure 8

    Figure 8. (a) Rate of Li removal and (b) results of Li extraction adapted with permission from ref (104). Copyright 2022, Elsevier. (c) Schematic representation of the multistage integrated membrane process, which includes a single-stage NF, followed by a first-stage and second-stage S-ED adapted with permission from ref (105). Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (d, e) Illustration of schematic of Li-Mg migration in (d) batch S-ED; (e) feed and bleed mode adapted with permission from ref (106). Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (f) Complete scheme of the fabrication of LATP membrane and the Mg/Li separation adapted with permission from ref (107). Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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    Figure 9

    Figure 9. (a) Design of ESIP stack for continuous Li-ions separation; (b) the mechanism illustrating Li-ions separation; (c) the diffusion pathway and (d) energy barrier analysis; (e) mean square displacement of Li and Mg-ions, with diffusion coefficient shown in the inset adapted with permission from ref (108). Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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    Figure 10

    Figure 10. (a) The adsorption capacity in single-salt solutions (0.05 mol/L); (b) separation factor and adsorption capacity across different Mg/Li ratios adapted with permission from ref (109). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (c) Synthesis process of electrodes; (d) representation of HCDI device adapted with permission from ref (110). Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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    Figure 11

    Figure 11. Overview of adsorption and ion-exchange–based direct lithium extraction (DLE) from brines, highlighting selective Li-ion capture, regeneration, and sustainable lithium recovery.

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    Figure 12

    Figure 12. (a) The full process of the formation of ion-sieves adapted with permission from ref (137). Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (b) Process of the selective Li-ion adsorption adapted with permission from ref (22). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (c) Plot of the adsorption kinetics; (d, e) plots of pseudo-first-order kinetics and pseudo-second-order kinetics (d) HFTO and (e) HTO. Adapted with permission from ref (143). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (f) The method of the preparation of HMO-Ti ionic sieves and its adsorption–desorption mechanism; adapted with permission from ref (144). Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

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    Figure 13

    Figure 13. (a) The steering interlayer interaction strategy in LiAl-LDHs beads; (b) effect of PAN concentration on Li extraction; (c) adsorption kinetics; (d) intraparticle diffusion and (e) desorption of Li from BLDH-P and BLDH-Cl adapted with permission from ref (150). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (f) The full scheme of binder less LiAl-LDH@NiAl-F preparation adapted with permission from ref (151). Copyright 2025, Elsevier.

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    Figure 14

    Figure 14. (a) The adsorption isotherm and kinetics plots of Li-ions adsorption onto MOF-808-12C4E adapted with permission from ref (153). Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (b) The full scheme of the synthesis of BCEEM and further copolymerization with NIPAM adapted with permission from ref (154). Copyright 2025, Elsevier. (c) Complete scheme of the synthesis of PPy@HNTs/PVA hydrogel composite adapted with permission from ref (32). Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (d) The plots of adsorption isotherm, kinetics, and multicycle use of PPy@HNTs/PVA for Li-ions extraction adapted with permission from ref (32). Copyright 2024, Elsevier.

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    Figure 15

    Figure 15. (a) Liquid–liquid equilibrium data for Li solution with TBP and cosolvents with FeCl3 as a coextracting agent adapted with permission from ref (175). Copyright 2011, American Chemical Society. (b) Relationship between the partition coefficient of Li and the extractability of iron at different Fe/Li ratios adapted with permission from ref (176). Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society. (c) Calculation of the theoretical stages of extraction using a McCabe–Thiele diagram adapted with permission from ref (178). Copyright 2016, Elsevier. (d) Simulation flow diagram for a three stage counter-current extraction process at an organic/aqueous ratio of 2/1 with initial Fe/Li = 1.3 for 10 min; adapted with permission from ref (178). Copyright 2016, Elsevier.

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    Figure 16

    Figure 16. (a) Li extraction and stripping mechanism using the ternary solvent approach TBP-FeCl3-P507; (b) proposed structures as a result of the presence of P507 (2-ethylhexyl phosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester); adapted with permission from ref (179). Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. (c) tThe effect of dosage of IL in TBP as a function of extraction efficiency adapted with permission from ref (181). Copyright 2014, Elsevier. (d) Extraction efficiency as a function of ratio of molar ratio of ClO4– and Li-ions adapted with permission from ref (182). Copyright 2015, Elsevier. (e) Dosage of ILs as a function of extraction efficiency and distribution ratio from ref (183). Copyright 2016, Elsevier. (f) Extraction efficiency of synthesized ILs and [DEHP], as a function of HCl concentration in the aqueous phase adapted with permission from ref (184). Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

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    Figure 17

    Figure 17. (a) Effect of pressure on rejection rate of ions; (b) effect of pH on rejection rate of ions; (c) effect of pH on separation factor and permeate amount of pure water adapted with permission from ref (190). Copyright 2015, Elsevier. (d) Flux and rejection for different salts by the positively charged composite hollow fiber as a function DAPP concentration adapted with permission from ref (191). Copyright 2015, Elsevier. Panels (e) and (f) permeate flux and rejection rate performance as a function of time for two simulated brine mixtures adapted with permission from ref (192). Copyright 2017, Elsevier.

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    Figure 18

    Figure 18. (a–d) Performance parameters of membrane at different concentrations of ILs: (a) flux; (b) percent salt rejection; (c) ion rejection; and (d) selectivity (conditions: 0.6 MPa, pH = 6.4) adapted with permission from ref (193). Copyright 2020, Elsevier. (e) Effect of time on the (Mg/Li)P ratio of the permeate stream at varying feeds ratios of Mg/Li; adapted with permission from ref (196). Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (f, g) Effect of time on the (f) migration rate and (g) recovery of Li-ion at different ratios of K/L adapted with permission from ref (197). Copyright 2018, Elsevier.

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    Figure 19

    Figure 19. Overview of conventional lithium recovery techniques, including solvent extraction, precipitation, electrochemical extraction, and adsorption-based methods, highlighting their key limitations.

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